I am currently working through a problem where I have to implement a linked stack and write a method to compute the sum of its elements but my code will not work properly for the sum_all method. Any help is much appreciated
class Node:
def __init__(self, item = None, link = None):
"""creates a node with a given item and link"""
self.item = item
self.link = link
class LinkedStack:
def __init__(self):
self.top = None
self.stack_size = 0
def size(self):
return self.stack_size
def is_empty(self):
return self.stack_size == 0
def is_full(self):
# linked stacks are never full
return False
def push(self, item):
"""Places the given item at the top of the stack
if there is capacity, or raises an Exception."""
new_node = Node(item, self.top)
self.top = new_node
self.stack_size += 1
def pop(self):
"""Removes and returns the top element of the stack,
or raises an Exception if there is none."""
if self.is_empty():
raise Exception("The stack is empty")
item = self.top.item # get a reference to the top item before we remove the link to it
self.top = self.top.link
self.stack_size -= 1
return item
def sum_all(self):
current = self.top
sum = 0
while current is not None:
sum = sum + current.item
current = current.link
return sum
my_linked_stack = LinkedStack()
n1 = Node(1)
print(n1.item)
n2 = Node(2, n1)
print(n2.item, n2.link.item)
n3 = Node(3, n2)
print(n3.item, n3.link.item, n3.link.link.item)
my_linked_stack.push(n1)
my_linked_stack.push(n2)
my_linked_stack.push(n3)
print(my_linked_stack.sum_all()
returns
1
(2, 1)
(3, 2, 1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "/Applications/PyCharm CE.app/Contents/plugins/python-ce/helpers/pydev/pydevd.py", line 1496, in _exec
pydev_imports.execfile(file, globals, locals) # execute the script
File "/Users/evanchauhan/Desktop/technical interview lecture resources/2085 resources/Stacks and Queues implemented with arrays/linked_queues.py", line 106, in <module>
print(my_linked_stack.sum_all())
File "/Users/evanchauhan/Desktop/technical interview lecture resources/2085 resources/Stacks and Queues implemented with arrays/linked_queues.py", line 89, in sum_all
sum = sum + current.item
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'instance'
I am trying to write a function named sum_all(self) that will compute the sum of all elements in my linked stack but I keep encountering this error which im not sure how to resolve
Related
I am using rl-baselines-zoo 3 to run ddpg with my custom env on colab. After I used show video function in that zoo repo, it said it cannot connect to the server. It works fine on other built-in envs, so I guess it's my env problem. please, need some help...
I set every thing from zoo's tutorials
Traceback:
pybullet build time: Jul 12 2021 20:46:20
/usr/local/lib/python3.7/dist-packages/gym/logger.py:30: UserWarning:
WARN: Box bound precision lowered by casting to float32
startThreads creating 1 threads.
starting thread 0
started thread 0
argc=2
argv[0] = --unused
argv[1] = --start_demo_name=Physics Server
ExampleBrowserThreadFunc started
X11 functions dynamically loaded using dlopen/dlsym OK!
X11 functions dynamically loaded using dlopen/dlsym OK!
Creating context
Created GL 3.3 context
Direct GLX rendering context obtained
Making context current
GL_VENDOR=VMware, Inc.
GL_RENDERER=llvmpipe (LLVM 10.0.0, 256 bits)
GL_VERSION=3.3 (Core Profile) Mesa 20.0.8
GL_SHADING_LANGUAGE_VERSION=3.30
pthread_getconcurrency()=0
Version = 3.3 (Core Profile) Mesa 20.0.8
Vendor = VMware, Inc.
Renderer = llvmpipe (LLVM 10.0.0, 256 bits)
b3Printf: Selected demo: Physics Server
startThreads creating 1 threads.
starting thread 0
started thread 0
MotionThreadFunc thread started
ven = VMware, Inc.
ven = VMware, Inc.
Wrapping the env in a VecTransposeImage.
tcmalloc: large alloc 3276800000 bytes == 0x556b03bda000 # 0x7f7cad04a001 0x7f7caa3f554f 0x7f7caa445b58 0x7f7caa449b17 0x7f7caa4e8203 0x556a81194d54 0x556a81194a50 0x556a81209105 0x556a812037ad 0x556a81196c9f 0x556a811d7d79 0x556a811d4cc4 0x556a81196ea1 0x556a81205bb5 0x556a8119630a 0x556a812087f0 0x556a812037ad 0x556a811963ea 0x556a8120460e 0x556a812034ae 0x556a811963ea 0x556a8120532a 0x556a812034ae 0x556a812031b3 0x556a81201660 0x556a81194b59 0x556a81194a50 0x556a81208453 0x556a812034ae 0x556a811963ea 0x556a812043b5
tcmalloc: large alloc 3276800000 bytes == 0x556bc78da000 # 0x7f7cad04a001 0x7f7caa3f554f 0x7f7caa445b58 0x7f7caa449b17 0x7f7caa4e8203 0x556a81194d54 0x556a81194a50 0x556a81209105 0x556a812037ad 0x556a81196c9f 0x556a811d7d79 0x556a811d4cc4 0x556a81196ea1 0x556a81205bb5 0x556a8119630a 0x556a812087f0 0x556a812037ad 0x556a811963ea 0x556a8120460e 0x556a812034ae 0x556a811963ea 0x556a8120532a 0x556a812034ae 0x556a812031b3 0x556a81201660 0x556a81194b59 0x556a81194a50 0x556a81208453 0x556a812034ae 0x556a811963ea 0x556a812043b5
/content/gdrive/My Drive/hsr/rl-baselines3-zoo/logs/ddpg/FoodHuntingHSR-v0_3/videos/final-model-ddpg-FoodHuntingHSR-v0-step-0-to-step-200.mp4
/usr/local/lib/python3.7/dist-packages/gym/logger.py:30: UserWarning:
WARN: Tried to pass invalid video frame, marking as broken: Your frame has data type float32, but we require uint8 (i.e. RGB values from 0-255).
Saving video to /content/gdrive/My Drive/hsr/rl-baselines3-zoo/logs/ddpg/FoodHuntingHSR-v0_3/videos/final-model-ddpg-FoodHuntingHSR-v0-step-0-to-step-200.mp4
numActiveThreads = 0
stopping threads
destroy semaphore
semaphore destroyed
Thread with taskId 0 exiting
Thread TERMINATED
destroy main semaphore
main semaphore destroyed
finished
numActiveThreads = 0
btShutDownExampleBrowser stopping threads
Thread with taskId 0 exiting
Thread TERMINATED
destroy semaphore
semaphore destroyed
destroy main semaphore
main semaphore destroyed
Exception ignored in: <function VecVideoRecorder.__del__ at 0x7f7c2b5cc200>
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "/content/gdrive/My Drive/hsr/stable-baselines3/stable_baselines3/common/vec_env/vec_video_recorder.py", line 114, in __del__
File "/content/gdrive/My Drive/hsr/stable-baselines3/stable_baselines3/common/vec_env/vec_video_recorder.py", line 110, in close
File "/content/gdrive/My Drive/hsr/stable-baselines3/stable_baselines3/common/vec_env/base_vec_env.py", line 278, in close
File "/content/gdrive/My Drive/hsr/stable-baselines3/stable_baselines3/common/vec_env/dummy_vec_env.py", line 67, in close
File "/content/gdrive/My Drive/hsr/stable-baselines3/stable_baselines3/common/monitor.py", line 113, in close
File "/usr/local/lib/python3.7/dist-packages/gym/core.py", line 243, in close
File "/usr/local/lib/python3.7/dist-packages/gym/core.py", line 243, in close
File "/content/gdrive/My Drive/hsr/PyLIS/gym-foodhunting/gym_foodhunting/foodhunting/gym_foodhunting.py", line 538, in close
pybullet.error: Not connected to physics server
class FoodHuntingEnv(gym.Env):
metadata = {'render.modes': ['human','rgb_array']}
GRAVITY = -10.0
BULLET_STEPS = 120 # p.setTimeStep(1.0 / 240.0), so 1 gym step == 0.5 sec.
def __init__(self, render=False, robot_model=R2D2, max_steps=500, num_foods=3, num_fakes=0, object_size=1.0, object_radius_scale=1.0, object_radius_offset=1.0, object_angle_scale=1.0):
"""Initialize environment.
"""
### gym variables
self.observation_space = robot_model.getObservationSpace() # classmethod
self.action_space = robot_model.getActionSpace() # classmethod
self.reward_range = (-1.0, 1.0)
self.seed()
### pybullet settings
self.ifrender = render
self.physicsClient = p.connect(p.GUI if self.ifrender else p.DIRECT)
p.setAdditionalSearchPath(pybullet_data.getDataPath())
### env variables
self.robot_model = robot_model
self.max_steps = max_steps
self.num_foods = num_foods
self.num_fakes = num_fakes
self.object_size = object_size
self.object_radius_scale = object_radius_scale
self.object_radius_offset = object_radius_offset
self.object_angle_scale = object_angle_scale
self.plane_id = None
self.robot = None
self.object_ids = []
### episode variables
self.steps = 0
self.episode_rewards = 0.0
def close(self):
"""Close environment.
"""
p.disconnect(self.physicsClient)
def reset(self):
"""Reset environment.
"""
self.steps = 0
self.episode_rewards = 0
p.resetSimulation()
# p.setTimeStep(1.0 / 240.0)
p.setGravity(0, 0, self.GRAVITY)
self.plane_id = p.loadURDF('plane.urdf')
self.robot = self.robot_model()
self.object_ids = []
for i, (pos, orn) in enumerate(self._generateObjectPositions(num=(self.num_foods+self.num_fakes), radius_scale=self.object_radius_scale, radius_offset=self.object_radius_offset, angle_scale=self.object_angle_scale)):
if i < self.num_foods:
urdfPath = 'food_sphere.urdf'
else:
urdfPath = 'food_cube.urdf'
object_id = p.loadURDF(urdfPath, pos, orn, globalScaling=self.object_size)
self.object_ids.append(object_id)
for i in range(self.BULLET_STEPS):
p.stepSimulation()
obs = self._getObservation()
#print('reset laile')
#self.robot.printAllJointInfo()
return obs
def step(self, action):
"""Apply action to environment, then return observation and reward.
"""
self.steps += 1
self.robot.setAction(action)
reward = -1.0 * float(self.num_foods) / float(self.max_steps) # so agent needs to eat foods quickly
for i in range(self.BULLET_STEPS):
p.stepSimulation()
reward += self._getReward()
self.episode_rewards += reward
obs = self._getObservation()
done = self._isDone()
pos, orn = self.robot.getPositionAndOrientation()
info = { 'steps': self.steps, 'pos': pos, 'orn': orn }
if done:
#print('Done laile')
info['episode'] = { 'r': self.episode_rewards, 'l': self.steps }
# print(self.episode_rewards, self.steps)
#print(self.robot.getBaseRollPosition(), self.robot.getTorsoLiftPosition(), self.robot.getHeadPosition(), self.robot.getArmPosition(), self.robot.getWristPosition(), self.robot.getGripperPosition()) # for HSR debug
#print(self.robot.getHeadPosition(), self.robot.getGripperPosition()) # for R2D2 debug
return obs, reward, done, info
def render(self, mode='human', close=False):
"""This is a dummy function. This environment cannot control rendering timing.
"""
if mode != 'rgb_array':
return np.array([])
return self._getObservation()
def seed(self, seed=None):
"""Set random seed.
"""
self.np_random, seed = seeding.np_random(seed)
return [seed]
def _getReward(self):
"""Detect contact points and return reward.
"""
reward = 0
contacted_object_ids = [ object_id for object_id in self.object_ids if self.robot.isContact(object_id) ]
for object_id in contacted_object_ids:
reward += 1 if self._isFood(object_id) else -1
p.removeBody(object_id)
self.object_ids.remove(object_id)
return reward
def _getObservation(self):
"""Get observation.
"""
obs = self.robot.getObservation()
return obs
def _isFood(self, object_id):
"""Check if object_id is a food.
"""
baseLink, urdfPath = p.getBodyInfo(object_id)
return urdfPath == b'food_sphere.urdf' # otherwise, fake
def _isDone(self):
"""Check if episode is done.
"""
#print(self.object_ids,'self')
available_object_ids = [ object_id for object_id in self.object_ids if self._isFood(object_id) ]
#print(available_object_ids)
return self.steps >= self.max_steps or len(available_object_ids) <= 0
def _generateObjectPositions(self, num=1, retry=100, radius_scale=1.0, radius_offset=1.0, angle_scale=1.0, angle_offset=0.5*np.pi, z=1.5, near_distance=0.5):
"""Generate food positions randomly.
"""
def genPos():
r = radius_scale * self.np_random.rand() + radius_offset
a = -np.pi * angle_scale + angle_offset
b = np.pi * angle_scale + angle_offset
ang = (b - a) * self.np_random.rand() + a
return np.array([r * np.sin(ang), r * np.cos(ang), z])
def isNear(pos, poss):
for p, o in poss:
if np.linalg.norm(p - pos) < near_distance:
return True
return False
def genPosRetry(poss):
for i in range(retry):
pos = genPos()
if not isNear(pos, poss):
return pos
return genPos()
poss = []
for i in range(num):
pos = genPosRetry(poss)
orn = p.getQuaternionFromEuler([0.0, 0.0, 2.0*np.pi*self.np_random.rand()])
poss.append((pos, orn))
return poss
I want to perform a binary-search using e.g. np.searchsorted, however, I do not want to create an explicit array containing values. Instead, I want to define a function giving the value to be expected at the desired position of the array, e.g. p(i) = i, where i denotes the position within the array.
Generating an array of values regarding the function would, in my case, be neither efficient nor elegant. Is there any way to achieve this?
What about something like:
import collections
class GeneratorSequence(collections.Sequence):
def __init__(self, func, size):
self._func = func
self._len = size
def __len__(self):
return self._len
def __getitem__(self, i):
if 0 <= i < self._len:
return self._func(i)
else:
raise IndexError
def __iter__(self):
for i in range(self._len):
yield self[i]
This would work with np.searchsorted(), e.g.:
import numpy as np
gen_seq = GeneratorSequence(lambda x: x ** 2, 100)
np.searchsorted(gen_seq, 9)
# 3
You could also write your own binary search function, you do not really need NumPy in this case, and it can actually be beneficial:
def bin_search(seq, item):
first = 0
last = len(seq) - 1
found = False
while first <= last and not found:
midpoint = (first + last) // 2
if seq[midpoint] == item:
first = midpoint
found = True
else:
if item < seq[midpoint]:
last = midpoint - 1
else:
first = midpoint + 1
return first
Which gives identical results:
all(bin_search(gen_seq, i) == np.searchsorted(gen_seq, i) for i in range(100))
# True
Incidentally, this is also WAY faster:
gen_seq = GeneratorSequence(lambda x: x ** 2, 1000000)
%timeit np.searchsorted(gen_seq, 10000)
# 1 loop, best of 3: 1.23 s per loop
%timeit bin_search(gen_seq, 10000)
# 100000 loops, best of 3: 16.1 µs per loop
Inspired by #norok2 comment, I think you can use something like this:
def f(i):
return i*2 # Just an example
class MySeq(Sequence):
def __init__(self, f, maxi):
self.maxi = maxi
self.f = f
def __getitem__(self, x):
if x < 0 or x > self.maxi:
raise IndexError()
return self.f(x)
def __len__(self):
return self.maxi + 1
In this case f is your function while maxi is the maximum index. This of course only works if the function f return values in sorted order.
At this point you can use an object of type MySeq inside np.searchsorted.
I am using PyOmo to generate a nonlinear model which will ultimately be solved with Ipopt. The model is as follows:
from pyomo.environ import *
from pyomo.dae import *
m = ConcreteModel()
m.t = ContinuousSet(bounds=(0,100))
m.T = Param(default=100,mutable=True)
m.a = Param(default=0.1)
m.kP = Param(default=20)
m.P = Var(m.t, bounds=(0,None))
m.S = Var(m.t, bounds=(0,None))
m.u = Var(m.t, bounds=(0,1), initialize=0.5)
m.Pdot = DerivativeVar(m.P)
m.Sdot = DerivativeVar(m.S)
m.obj = Objective(expr=m.S[100],sense=maximize)
def _Pdot(M,i):
if i == 0:
return Constraint.Skip
return M.Pdot[i] == (1-M.u[i])*(M.P[i]**0.75)
def _Sdot(M,i):
if i == 0:
return Constraint.Skip
return M.Sdot[i] == M.u[i]*0.2*(M.P[i]**0.75)
def _init(M):
yield M.P[0] == 2
yield M.S[0] == 0
yield ConstraintList.End
m.Pdotcon = Constraint(m.t, rule=_Pdot)
m.Sdotcon = Constraint(m.t, rule=_Sdot)
m.init_conditions = ConstraintList(rule=_init)
discretizer = TransformationFactory('dae.collocation')
discretizer.apply_to(m,nfe=100,ncp=3,scheme='LAGRANGE-RADAU')
discretizer.reduce_collocation_points(m,var=m.u,ncp=1,contset=m.t)
solver = SolverFactory('ipopt')
results = solver.solve(m,tee=False)
Running the model results in the following error:
Error evaluating constraint 1: can't evaluate pow'(0,0.75).
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
File "/usr/local/lib/python3.5/dist-packages/pyomo/opt/base/solvers.py", line 577, in solve
"Solver (%s) did not exit normally" % self.name)
pyutilib.common._exceptions.ApplicationError: Solver (asl) did not exit normally
The first part of the error comes from Ipopt whereas the second part comes from PyOmo. Evidently the issue has something ot do with the term M.P[i]**0.75 in the constraints, but changing the power does not resolve the issue (though 2.0 did work).
How can I resolve this?
The error message states that pow'(0,0.75) cannot be evaluated. The ' character in this function indicates the first derivative ('' would indiate the second derivative). The message is effectively saying that the first derivative does not exist or results in an infinity at zero.
Resolving the issue is easy: bound your variables to a non-zero value as follows:
m.P = Var(m.t, bounds=(1e-20,None))
m.S = Var(m.t, bounds=(1e-20,None))
I would add to Richard's answer:
you might also need to update the initial value of your variable as ipopt assumes 0 if not specified, so it will evaluate the variable at 0 for the first iteration.
hence:
m.P = Var(m.t, bounds=(1e-20,None), initialize=1e-20)
m.S = Var(m.t, bounds=(1e-20,None), initialize=1e-20)
instead of 1e-20 as initialize you might use a value more relevant to your problem
I'm learning OOP in python and was trying to run this small game in OOP style, but for some reason system doesn't find object's attributes.
Here's the problem:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "HelloUsername.py", line 47, in <module>
newGameGTN = GuessTheNumber()
File "HelloUsername.py", line 6, in __init__
self.start_game()
File "HelloUsername.py", line 32, in start_game
player = player_choice()
NameError: name 'player_choice' is not defined
On this code in python 3:
from random import randint
class GuessTheNumber(object):
"""docstring for GuessTheNumber"""
def __init__(self):
self.start_game()
self.player_choice()
self.compare_numbers()
def player_choice(self):
choice = int(input("Choose your number: "))
if choice in range(101):
return(choice)
else:
print("Please enter a number 0-100")
player_choice()
def compare_numbers(self, computer, player):
if player == computer:
return(0)
elif player > computer:
return(1)
elif player < computer:
return(-1)
def start_game(self):
computer = randint(0, 100)
turn = 0
for turn in range(3):
player = player_choice()
x = compare_numbers(computer, player)
print(computer)
if x == -1:
print("too small")
elif x == 1:
print("too big")
elif x == 0:
print("you win")
break
turn += 1
print("game over")
newGameGTN = GuessTheNumber()
newGameGTN.start_game()
NameError is not the same as AttributeError (which you mention in the question's summary). A NameError exception means that the name referenced in your code does not exist. A name can be a local variable, or a variable in an enclosing scope.
All methods in a class need to be called on an instance of that class. (staticmethods and classmethods not withstanding) Instead of name = player_choice() you need to write name = self.player_choice(). Likewise for all other occurrences where you call a method defined in the class.
Recently, I have been messing around with pygame and I decided to make a pong clone. However, I am running into problems with the ball class.
This is my class:
class Ball(pygame.sprite.Sprite):
""" This class represents the ball that bounces around. """
# Constructor function
def __init__(self, x, y):
# Call the parent's constructor
pygame.sprite.Sprite().__init__(self)
# Set height, width
self.image = pygame.Surface([15, 15])
self.image.fill(white)
# Make our top-left corner the passed-in location.
self.rect = self.image.get_rect()
self.rect.y = y
self.rect.x = x
# Set speed vector
self.change_x = 0
self.change_y = 0
def goal(self):
if self.rect.x <= SCREEN_WIDTH:
playerscore =+ 1
print playerscore
elif self.rect.x >= 0:
aiscore =+ 1
print aiscore
def update(self):
""" Update the ball's position. """
# Get the old position, in case we need to go back to it
old_x = self.rect.x
new_x = old_x + self.change_x
self.rect.x = new_x
# Did this update cause us to hit a wall?
collide = pygame.sprite.spritecollide(self, allsprites_list, False)
if collide:
# Whoops, hit a wall. Go back to the old position
self.rect.x = old_x
self.change_x *= -1
old_y = self.rect.y
new_y = old_y + self.change_y
self.rect.y = new_y
# Did this update cause us to hit a wall?
collide = pygame.sprite.spritecollide(self, allsprites_list, False)
if collide:
# Whoops, hit a wall. Go back to the old position
self.rect.y = old_y
self.change_y *= -1
if self.rect.x < -20 or self.rect.x > screen_width + 20:
self.change_x = 0
self.change_y = 0
This adds the ball to a sprite group:
self.ball = Ball(100, 250)
self.all_sprites_list.add(self.ball)
And this is the traceback:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "C:/Users/Enigma/Desktop/pong.py", line 312, in <module>
main()
File "C:/Users/Enigma/Desktop/pong.py", line 290, in main
game = Game()
File "C:/Users/Enigma/Desktop/pong.py", line 218, in __init__
self.ball = Ball(100, 250)
File "C:/Users/Enigma/Desktop/pong.py", line 83, in __init__
pygame.sprite.Sprite().__init__(self)
File "C:\Python27\lib\site-packages\pygame\sprite.py", line 114, in __init__
if groups: self.add(groups)
File "C:\Python27\lib\site-packages\pygame\sprite.py", line 129, in add
else: self.add(*group)
File "C:\Python27\lib\site-packages\pygame\sprite.py", line 129, in add
else: self.add(*group)
TypeError: add() argument after * must be a sequence, not Ball
I have searched the web and all of the posts that I could find here at SO, however none of the seem to apply to this particular conundrum. Any and all help would be appreciated.
I am running python 2.7.9 on Windows 7.
This line:
pygame.sprite.Sprite().__init__(self)
is almost certainly wrong. You want to call the method on the class, not an instance.
pygame.sprite.Sprite.__init__(self)