What is the exact meaning of these characters ←, ≡, ¬, ≠, ⌾, and ∢ and how are used in Smalltalk-80?
consider the following expressions: (taken from the smalltalk-80 source code)
^self class ≡ x ≡ false
^mem ◦ ¬448 ≠ 0
strm frame ← 15000 ⌾ frame origin y rect: 20000 ⌾ frame corner y.
neg ← (aStream ∢ 45 "-" ifTrue: [true] ifFalse: [aStream ∢ 21 "**¬**"]).
Note: This examples were extracted from the original Xerox Alto disks found in this link: http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/bits/Xerox/Alto/disk_images/
Sounds like this is a source file from a Xerox-internal version of Smalltalk-80. For the public release they must have replaced these "unusual" chars (which required custom font glyphs) with ASCII, only keeping ← and ↑ glyphs for the _ and ^ ASCII characters.
This is a best guess based on my experience with St76/78 (Update: confirmed by Dan Ingalls):
← assignment as in var ← object. Same in St80.
rcvr word← arg is an alternative to word: and usually indicates assignment to a slot of the receiver (e.g. x← as in point x ← 100). St80 only allows keywords ending in a colon :.
The parser treats ← as lower precedence so you can have keyword expressions on both sides of it. E.g.
a foo: b ← c bar: d
would eval c bar: d and pass the result as second argument to a's foo:← method).
◦ indexing as in array◦index. St80 uses at: instead.
◦← equivalent to St80's at:put: as in array◦index ← value
≡ identity, like St80's ==
¬ literal for negative numbers as in ¬1 for -1. The parser treated - as a binary message selector so another symbol had to be used for negative numbers literals.
≠ not equal, like St80's ~=
≢ not identical, like St80's ~~
⌾ create a Point, like St80's #
∢ match token from stream. If the next token read from stream matches the argument, it is consumed and returned. Otherwise it answers false.
For more info check out the Smalltalk Zoo website.
Related
I am learning about LL(1) grammars. I have a task of checking if grammar is LL(1) and if not, I then need to find the rules, which prevent it from being LL(1). I came across this link https://www.csd.uwo.ca/~mmorenom/CS447/Lectures/Syntax.html/node14.html which has a theorem which can be used as a criteria for deciding if grammar is LL(1) or not. It says that for any rule A -> alpha | beta some equalities, considering FIRST and FOLLOW sets need to be true. Therefore, I need to find FIRST and FOLLOW sets of these right-hand sides of production.
Let's say, I have following rules A -> a b B S | eps. How do I calculate FIRST and FOLLOW of a b B S? As far as I understand by definition these sets are defined only for 1 non-terminal symbol.
The idea behind the FIRST function is that it returns the set of terminals which could possibly start the expansion of its argument. It's usual to also add the special object ε (which is a way of writing an empty sequence of symbols) if ε is a possible expansion.
So if a is a terminal, FIRST(a) is just { a }. And if A is a non-terminal, FIRST(A) is the set of non-terminals which could possibly appear at the beginning of a derivation of A. Finally, FIRST(ε) must be { ε }, according to the convention described above.
Now suppose α is a (possibly empty) sequence of grammar symbols:
If α is empty (that is, it's ε), FIRST(α) is { ε }
If the first symbol in α is the terminal a, FIRST(α) is { a }.
If the first symbol in α is the non-terminal A, there are two possibilities. Let TAIL(α) be the rest of α after the first symbol. Now:
if ε ∈ FIRST(A), then FIRST(α) is FIRST(A) ∪ FIRST(TAIL(α)).
otherwise, FIRST(α) is FIRST(A).
Now, how do we compute FIRST(A), for every non-terminal A? Using the above definition of FIRST(α), we recursively define FIRST(A) to be the union of the sets FIRST(α) for every α which is the right-hand side of a production A → α.
The FOLLOW function defines the set of terminal symbols which might appear after the expansion of a non-terminal. It is only defined on non-terminals; if you look carefully at the LL(1) conditions on the page you cite, you'll see that FIRST is applied to a right-hand side, while FOLLOW is only applied to left-hand sides.
G = (V={S,X,Y}, T={0,1,2},P,S)
S -> 0X1
X ->S | 00S2 | Y | ε
Y ->X | 1
The Problem is I don´t know how to derivate numbers..
How can I derivate this here:
00111 ∈ L(G)
And here I have to give a derivation three:
0000121 ∈ L(G)
To do a derivation you start with the start symbol (in this case S) which is the fourth item in the grammar tuple). You then apply the production rules (P) in whatever order seems appropriate to you.
A production like:
X → S | 00S2 | Y | ε
means that you can replace an X with
S, or
00S2, or
Y, or
nothing.
In other words, you read production rules as follows:
→ means "can be replaced with".
| means "or"
ε means "nothing" (Replacing a symbol with nothing means deleting it from the current string.)
Everything else is just a possible symbol in the string. You keep doing replacements, one at a time, until you reach the string you are trying to derive.
Here's a quick example:
S
→ 0X1 (using S → 0X1)
→ 000S21 (using X → 00S2)
→ 0000X121 (using S → 0X1)
→ 0000121 (using X → ε)
That's it. Nothing complicated at all. Just a bunch of search and replace operations. (You don't need to replace the first occurrence, if there is more than one possibility. You can do the replacements in any order you like. But it's convenient to be systematic.)
To compute FOLLOW(A) for all non-terminals A, apply the following rules
until nothing can be added to any FOLLOW set.
Place $ in FOLLOW(S) , where S is the start symbol, and $ is the input
right endmarker .
If there is a production A -> B, then everything in FIRST(b) except epsilon
is in FOLLOW(B) .
If there is a production A -> aBb, or a production A -> aBb, where
FIRST(b) contains t, then everything in FOLLOW(A) is in FOLLOW(B).
a,b is actually alpha and beta(sentential form). This is from dragon book.
Now my question is in this case can we take a=epsilon ?
and can b(beta) be 2 non-terminals like XY? (if senetntial then it solud be..)
Here's what the Dragon book actually says: [See note 1]
Place $ in FOLLOW(S).
For every production A→αBβ, place everything
in FIRST(β) except ε into
FOLLOW(B)
For every production A→αB or
A→αBβ where FIRST(β) contains
ε, place FOLLOW(A) into
FOLLOW(B).
There is a section earlier in the book on "notational conventions" in which it is made clear that a lower-case greek letter like α or β represents a possibly empty string of grammar symbols. So, yes, α could be empty and β could be two nonterminals (or any other string of grammar symbols).
Note:
Here I'm using a variant on the formatting suggesting made by #leftroundabout in this meta post. (The only difference is that I put the formulae in bold.) It's easy to type Greek letters as entities if you don't have a Greek keyboard handy; just use, for example, α (α) or β (β). For upper-case Greek letters, write the name with an upper-case letter: Σ (Σ). Other useful symbols are arrows: → (→) and ⇒ (⇒).
Let L denotes the language generated by the grammar S -> 0S0/00. Which of the following is true?
(A) L = 0+
(B) L is regular but not 0+
(C) L is context free but not regular
(D) L is not context free
HI can anyone explain me how the language represented by the grammar S -> 0S0/00 is regular? I know very well the grammar is context free but not sure how can that be regular?
If you mean the language generated by the grammar
S -> 0S0
S -> 00
then it should be clear that it is the same language as is generated by
S -> 00S
S -> 00
which is a left regular grammar, and consequently generates a regular language. (Some people would say that a left regular grammar can only have a single terminal in each production, but it is trivial to create a chain of aN productions to produce the same effect.)
It should also be clear that the above differs from
S -> 0S
S -> S
We know that a language is regular if there exists a DFA (deterministic finite automata) that recogognizes it, or a RE (Regular expression). Either way we can see here that your grammar generates word like : 00, 0000, 000000, 00000000.. etc so it's words that starts and ends with '0' and with an even number of zeroes greater or equal than length two.
Here's a DFA for this grammar
Also here is a RE (Regular expression) that recognizes the language :
(0)(00)*(0)
Therefore you know this language recognized by this grammar is regular.
(Sorry if terms aren't 100% accurate, i took this class in french so terms might differ a bit) let me know if you have any other questions!
Consider first the definition of a regular grammar here
https://www.cs.montana.edu/ross/theory/contents/chapter02/green/section05/page04.xhtml
So first we need a set N of non terminal symbols (symbols that can be rewritten as a combination of terminal and non-terminal symbols), for our example N={S}
Next we need a set T of terminal symbols (symbols that cannot be replaced), for our example T={0}
Now a set P of grammer rules that fit a very specific form (see link), for L we see that P={S->0S0,S->00}. Both of these rules are of regular form (meaning each non-terminal can be replaced with a terminal, a terminal then a non-terminal, or the empty string, see link for more info). So we have our rules.
Now we just need a starting symbol X, we can trivally say that our starting symbol is S.
Therefore the tuple (N={S},T={0},P={S->0S0,S->00},X=S) fits the requirements to be defined a regular grammar.
We don't need the machinery of regular grammars to answer your question. Just note the possible derivations all look like this:
S -> (0 S 0) -> 0 (0 S 0) 0 -> 0 0 (0 S 0) 0 0 -> ... -> 0...0 (0 0) 0...0
\_ _/ \_ _/
k k
Here I've added parens ( ) to show the result of the previous expansion of S. These aren't part of the derived string. I.e. we substitute S with 0 S 0 k >= 0 times followed by a single substitution with 00.
From this is should be easy to see L is the set of strings of 0's of length 2k + 2 for some integer k >= 0. A shorthand notation for this is
L = { 02m | m >= 1 }
In words: The set of all even length strings of zeros excluding the empty string.
To prove L is regular, all we need is a regular expression for L. This is easy: (00)+. Or if you prefer, 00(00)*.
You might be confused because a small change to the grammar makes its language context free but not regular:
S -> 0S1/01
This is the more complex language { 0m 1m | m >= 1 }. It's straightforward to show this isn't a regular language using the Pumping Lemma.
DFA problem : Write a complete grammar for L, including the quadruple and the production rules
L ={x: ∃y ∈ {a, b}* : x = ay}
Answer:
G={{S, A}, {a, b}, S, P}
P: S => aA
A => aA | bA | λ
My question is :
Why there is λ for A, but there is no λ for S?
From the language definition, it is any string that begins with an a and contains only a's and b's , but why in the answer A => bA. Does not it mean that the string starts with b if it is A => bA?
Thank you so much
1. Why there is λ for A, but there is no λ for S?
λ nul can be derived from A to convert a sentimental from into sentence. Additionally according to language statement prefix sub-string y ∈ {a, b}* can be nul (a empty string) e.g. "a" is a string belongs to the language. If y contain any symbol then length of language will be more than one.
S doesn't derive λ nul because empty (or say nul string) is not in language. The smallest string in language is single "a".
2. From the language definition, it is any string that begins with an a and contains only a's and b's , but why in the answer A => bA. Does not it mean that the string starts with b if it is A => bA?
Note only strings those can derived from start variable S are included in language of grammar. You can't start derivation from A (that is not start variable). And if you start a derivation from S your string will always start with a symbol.
I suggest you to read: "Why the need for terminals? Is my solution sufficient enough?" Where I written about basic definition of formal grammar.