By searching I have found a similarity that is both import libraries. But unable to point out any other similarities, as everywhere I can see only differences.
Scripting languages are programming languages. Most of the programming languages in use today that once deserved the "scripting" label are complete programming environments from the syntactically, semantically, and library-wise.
At some point "scripting language" may have been used for languages that were suitable only for writing short scripts, but today any language that doesn't require a complex compilation step to run and that provides a read–eval–print loop (REPL) is considered good enough for scripting.
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I am looking for a general-purpose (considering PHP is actually made and initially meant (I understand they are be used different ways some times) for server side Web and JavaScript for client-side web) with C/C++/C#/Java-like syntax. Do you know of such?
Mythryl is a general-purpose scripting languages deliberately designed around C syntax.
Perhaps Pike with Fins
There's also Ch, an embeddable C/C++ interpreter.
Just look through the Comparison of programming languages, and see which ones fit your needs best. You might look at the language with dynamic Type Systems, because those are scripting languages. Hyped languages include Scala, Ruby (with the Ruby on Rails web framework), Groovy and others, if you need a start.
In general, Wikipedia's C language entry lists many: "C has directly or indirectly influenced many later languages such as Java, Perl, Python, PHP, JavaScript, LPC, C# and Unix's C Shell"
Specifically, for general-purpose "scripting" language that is very similar to C, I would strongly recommend Perl which fits the bill perfectly.
Perl's syntax (or at least a sub-set of it) is VERY C-like (to the point that ex-C programmers starting in Perl are unfortunately known to code in "C-ish Perl" style which is pretty much straight up C).
In additional to general syntax ideas, Perl supports a vast majority of C system functions and many other C-isms (e.g. fully functional printf, process control and IPC).
Perl these days is definitely a general purpose language - it is used for anything from web development (including modern frameworks like Catalyst MVC, Plack etc...), to enterprise software development including full blown servers, to system administration scripting and general "scripting" glue tasks.
In addition, it supports both Object Oriented programming (either using classic Perl OOP or using modern Moose), as well as functional programming.
Please note that when evaluating Perl, you should not rely on the numerous myths that exist out there - most of these are due to either people not being sufficiently familiar with Perl, or judging Perl based on a large mass of poor-code-quality dirty scripts written by system administrators who weren't software developers, or judging Perl based on its features in Perl versions that were popular 15 years ago (e.g. any criticism of Perl OOP circa 1998 is pretty much useless unless the person doing it is closely familiar with Moose).
P.S. Since your questions seems to be in "...coming from PHP" context, you should also note that PHP is in fact very similar to a subset of Perl - by design. To quote from php.net:
The syntax itself was similar to that of Perl, albeit much more limited, simple, and somewhat inconsistent.
Matter of fact, PHP started out as a collection of Perl CGI scripts.
I am currently working on a new project called Cpy, using Python's execution engine, but wrting codes in C-syntax. It is built with ANTLR and Python. Take a look at it: http://www.ideawu.com/cpy/
Pawn. Not general purpose (depending on your definition) but very good as a small embedded language.
OOP is probably the most used programming paradigm in today’s software design. My question is – what other paradigm(s) can compete with it and can stand in the place of OOP? To clarify that question, I’m not asking about what other paradigms there are. There are many of them, but I’d like to know which one…
Has been used in practice, not only in theory.
Can compete with OOP, so it can be used in a large project with a minimum of pain.
Can be used to develop a desktop app with business logic, databases, and so on.
Is not used alongside OOP, but as a replacement for OOP.
And if there is any, what are the pros/cons of it, why it is better/worse than OOP, what languages are the best to use it, what about using it in popular languages, has it any design patterns, and can it totally replace OOP?
Functional programming is another programming paradigm that is popular, mostly in academics. The best example of a functional programming language is Haskell and Standard ML.
The fundamental difference between functional programming and object oriented programming is that you are programming in the sense of data flow instead of control flow. See the presentation Taming Effects with Functional Programming by Simon Peyton-Jones for a good introduction.
A good example of functional programming used in the industry is Erlang. It is mostly used in telecommunication, distributed and fault tolerant systems. See the presentation Erlang - Software for a concurrent World by Joe Armstrong.
There are also newer functional programming languages that combine functional programming with OOP. Two good examples are F# for the .NET platform and Scala for the Java platform; they can often use existing libraries on the platform written in other languages.
The trend of new programming languages now is Multi-paradigm, where multiple paradigms like object oriented programming and functional programming are combined in the same language.
Procedural processing was everything before OOP turned up, has produced some large real world applications (in fact, most of them originally) and many operating systems.
It can certainly be used in large scale products with a minimum of pain, and a maximum of performance
First of all please note that many of the programming languages currently in use (especially "higher level languages") are multi-paradigm. That means you are never building programs which are purely OOP (except if you use Smalltalk or Eiffel to build your big projects maybe).
Have a look at PHP for instance:
Has many elements of OOP (since version 5)
Was mostly procedural before
Has elements of declarative programming (e.g. the array functions)
Implemented many elements of functional programming (since version 5.4)
Basically PHP is gluing a lot of different paradigms together (and is a "glue language" itself).
Also Java implements a lot of concepts which are not from the Object-Oriented paradigm (e.g. from functional programming).
Have a look on the list of programming languages by type in Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_programming_languages_by_type#Imperative_languages (not 100% accurate).
Functional programming (subset of declerative programming)
Wideley used in practice (it became part of glued languages like PHP, also Java and many others have implemented concepts of functional programming)
Many ideas originate in LISP which is definitely worth a look
You can build whole applications e.g. with Haskell therefore it can "replace" OOP
Procedural programming
C (as a mostly procedural language) is still one of the most widely used languages
Many modern glue-languages were procedural in the beginning
Still many programs are mostly procedural (so if you want it can "replace" OOP)
Logical programming
Most prominent example is Prolog. This is used for specific tasks that benefit from rule-based logical queries
Can not "replace" OOP in terms of building a large project but may replace it in other terms
Declarative / Domain-specific languages in general
Using SQL in your projects? Then they are not purely OOP, SQL is essentially declarative.
Many domain-specific languages (like CSS) are declarative
Imperative programming in general
Tons of applications are not "object-oriented" but simply written in imperative style (e.g. assembly)
Look here for a great thread: https://softwareengineering.stackexchange.com/questions/117092/whats-the-difference-between-imperative-procedural-and-structured-programming
This list is not complete it shall just give an idea. Just note that you usually are using a lot of different paradigms when writing a big application and even each language you are using is implementing multiple paradigms.
OOP is usually considered a good choice for structuring large, complex relationships when modelling data. It is not always the paradigm to go with for many other tasks.
Vector Relational Data Modeling is used to create executable information models with domain relevant semantics within the Global Information Network Architecture, a network resident model broker.
FP - Functional Programming is an extremely popular programming paradigm that has been around for a very long time and has, in more recent years, started becoming more and more prominent. FP favors immutability over mutability, recursion, and functions with no side effects. Some examples of popular fp languages are Erlang, Scala, F#, Haskell and Lisp (among others).
There are no paradigms currently that can genuinely replace OOP. The issue with (benefit of) OOP is that it does a vast amount of work for you- automatically releasing resources, validating data, etc, and it makes it easy to validate code- not to mention that the vast majority of the world's existing libraries are written in an OOP language like C++, C# or Java. The reality of getting along without such large-scale libraries and such is exceedingly doubtful.
In niche or academic worlds, you'll find a lot of Functional Programming. However, if you really want to do a large project, OOP is the only way to go.
I think that generic programming is going to come up as a new paradigm. However, it's really still in the development phase and only C++/D offer genuinely good generic programming.
In my ongoing effort to quench my undying thirst for more programming knowledge I have come up with the idea of attempting to write a (at least for now) simple programming language that compiles into bytecode. The problem is I don't know the first thing about language design. Does anyone have any advice on a methodology to build a parser and what the basic features every language should have? What reading would you recommend for language design? How high level should I be shooting for? Is it unrealistic to hope to be able to include a feature to allow one to inline bytecode in a way similar to gcc allowing inline assembler? Seeing I primarily code in C and Java which would be better for compiler writing?
There are so many ways...
You could look into stack languages and Forth. It's not very useful when it comes to designing other languages, but it's something that can be done very quickly.
You could look into functional languages. Most of them are based on a few simple concepts, and have simple parsing. And, yet, they are very powerful.
And, then, the traditional languages. They are the hardest. You'll need to learn about lexical analysers, parsers, LALR grammars, LL grammars, EBNF and regular languages just to get past the parsing.
Targeting a bytecode is not just a good idea – doing otherwise is just insane, and mostly useless, in a learning exercise.
Do yourself a favour, and look up books and tutorials about compilers.
Either C or Java will do. Java probably has an advantage, as object orientation is a good match for this type of task. My personal recommendation is Scala. It's a good language to do this type of thing, and it will teach you interesting things about language design along the way.
You might want to read a book on compilers first.
For really understanding what's going on, you'll likely want to write your code in C.
Java wouldn't be a bad choice if you wanted to write an interpreted language, such as Jython. But since it sounds like you want to compile down to machine code, it might be easier in C.
I recommend reading the following books:
ANTLR
Language Design Patterns
This will give you tools and techniques for creating parsers, lexers, and compilers for custom languages.
When I say "full" I mean a language that's not an extension to some already existent language like Java or C++. When OOP started it begun with extensions for procedural languages like C and Pascal. Is there any Aspect-Oriented programming language "by itself"?
Short answer: No
But there are languages that contain constructs that mimic aspects, for example Haskel which contains the possibility to add advices or Smalltalk because of its message approach. You could also look at Eifel with its contract oriented approach - that could be compared to applying aspects to functions.
But a pure AOP language, I would say no.
Edit: And sure enough, someone found an AOP language ;)
Well the answer is as usual "Lisp". It has after and before methods in the ANSI Lisp Definition and you can do a lot of the AOP stuff with macros.
I've been reading a bit about functional programming recently and am keen to get have a bit of a play. are there any decent scripting languages that support functional programming? I find that the bulk of my ad-hoc programming is done in Python, so I thought I might be able to do the same with a functional language. Any recommendations?
Lua appears to fit your needs:
Lua (pronounced /ˈluː.ə/ LOO-uh) is a
lightweight, reflective, imperative
and functional programming language,
designed as a scripting language with
extensible semantics as a primary
goal.
Scala can also be used as a scripting language. It runs on the JVM and supports both imperative OO and functional programming. Using this you can have access to the entire Java class library.
Python can be written in a functional style, as can JavaScript. If you mean something more purely functional, then you could try Haskell.
GNU's Guile can be used as a stand-alone script interpreter, see this FAQ entry for the details. Not sure how much general programming support is in Guile, though, but it could at least get you started quickly with something that should look and feel like a "traditional" functional language.
Perl can do functional style programming very well. It isn't a pure functional language by any means, but it supports quite a lot of functional idioms. The classic full-length treatment is Mark Jason Dominus's Higher Order Perl, which is now available freely online.
For briefer introductions, take a look at these slides:
Functional programming in Perl
Introduction to functional programming in Perl
It depends on what you mean by "scripting language." It isn't commonly viewed that way, but many Scheme implementations seem to fit the bill as well as Python, and Lisp is sort of the archetypal functional language.
Julia language. Also not just a "scripting" language, as fast as C.
See my answer here: https://www.quora.com/Whats-a-good-scripting-functional-programming-language/answer/Páll-Haraldsson
I recently work on a functional scripting language and already finished the first version. It is a bit like a haskell/perl combination and therefore nice for scripting and mathematical problems, too.
For example here is a code snippet demonstrating how easy it is:
5 times {echo["Iteration: " concat str[x]]}
If you are interested, you can give it a try: http://ac1235.github.io
Kotlin is a practical functional language, mainly for the JVM. It has a scripting flavor called kscript. I've used it for shell scripting in personal projects. Simple example:
#!/usr/bin/env kscript
args.forEach { arg -> println("arg: $arg") }
Run it:
> ./example.kts hey you
arg: hey
arg: you
Drawbacks:
Requires JVM
Slow startup
For more info:
https://github.com/holgerbrandl/kscript
Search stackoverflow for kscript
If you're comfortable with the JVM and like functional programming, kscript is worth exploring.